Global Grinds: A Tour of Coffee Cultures Around the World

Sipping Through History: The Story of Coffee in Yemen is an exploration of how coffee has played a key role in shaping the history and culture of Yemen. It takes a look at the long-standing tradition of coffee farming, processing, and consumption in the country, and how coffee has come to symbolize many aspects of Yemeni culture. It also examines the current conflict that has engulfed the country and how coffee is still connected to Yemeni identity in the midst of the crisis. With insight into the country's history and an understanding of the socio-economic effects of the conflict, Sipping Through History: The Story of Coffee in Yemen provides an in-depth look at the country's vibrant culture and cuisine. Introduction of coffee in Yemen Coffee is deeply embedded in the culture of Yemen, and its introduction to the country is steeped in legend. According to legend, a Sufi monk named Ali ibn Urair brought coffee beans to Yemen from Ethiopia in the 15th century. He was so pleased with the energising effect they had on him that he brought coffee trees with him on his return. Coffee then began to be grown in the highlands of Yemen, where the cool climate and rich volcanic soil provided the perfect conditions for coffee cultivation. Coffee production later spread to the city of Mocha, located on the Yemeni coast, and quickly became its main source of income. By the end of the 16th century, Mocha's coffee had gained a reputation for its high quality and was in high demand in European markets. The coffee industry in Yemen would eventually become the largest in the world, and by the middle of the 19th century, an estimated 11 million coffee trees were planted across Yemen. Yemeni coffee was renowned for its unique flavor and was particularly sought after in Europe. The coffee from Yemen has played an important role in the world of coffee for centuries. Its distinct flavor and aroma, along with its rich history and culture, have placed Yemeni coffee among the best in the world. Ancient Beginnings Ancient Beginnings is the first part of Sipping Through History: The Story of Coffee in Yemen. The chapter focuses on coffee's long and rich history in Yemen, beginning with a discussion of the earliest references to the coffee bean dating back to the 9th century. The chapter then looks at the important role Yemen has played in the cultivation, preparation, and trading of coffee over the centuries, while highlighting some of the legends and tales that have grown up around its use. It also examines the innovative agricultural technologies developed by Yemeni farmers and traders which helped it become the global beverage it is today. Description of how coffee grew in Yemen Yemen has long been known for its quality coffee, and is believed to be the birthplace of coffee. It was during the Ethiopian Abyssinian Empire in 13th century AD that coffee was first discovered and first appreciated by locals, when the ruler sent out a labor force to capture wild coffee and plant it in the Yemeni region. From there, coffee began to spread throughout the Middle East and surrounding regions, allowing for appreciation and cultivation of the bean in different countries. The Islamic world of the 15th and 16th centuries took to coffee, with Yemen becoming the leading exporter of the beverage at the time. Sultans and grandees were known to hold highly exclusive (and expensive!) coffee parties and it was given as a gift to those privileged enough to receive it. This exclusivity made it extremely popular and expensive and led to the creation of great coffee houses across the country, allowing for the exchange of news and ideas. Yemen became known as the "Pearl of the Arabian Gulf" and the primary source of coffee beans throughout the empire. The country's relationship with coffee has shaped its culture and economy to this day, as specialty Yemeni coffees remain a staple of coffee culture in the country and all over the world. History of the beans and production Coffee has been cultivated in Yemen since the 15th century, making it one of the oldest and original origins of coffee production. Coffee was originally cultivated on the Arabian Peninsula, in the mountainous regions of the Haraz and the Simnan regions in the northwest part of Yemen. The coffee beans used in Yemen are Arabica and are grown in shaded, high-elevation coffee farms (500-2,000 meters). The climate of Yemen is classified as mainland tropical, providing long hours of sunlight and high-humidity levels that are well-suited to coffee production. The majority of coffee farms in Yemen are small holdings which are farmed using traditional methods that have maintained the authenticity of the coffee beans. Harvesting in Yemen is done by hand by picking the ripe beans off the tree one-by-one. After the harvest, the coffee is processed through either the dry or wet methods. The dry method uses the sun to dry the beans in the open air, while the wet method uses water to chemically dehusk the beans. Once the beans are de-husked, they are then sorted according to size and shape, and then roasted, usually over charcoal. The roasting process brings out the unique flavors associated with Yemeni coffee, such as cherry, chocolate, and spice. The majority of Yemeni coffee is ground and brewed at home, using traditional methods such as the cezve, which is a small metal pot with a long handle that is used to prepare coffee. The ground coffee is boiled with water and sometimes spices, like cardamom, in the cezve, over an open flame, creating a rich, intense brew. Coffee's popularity and economic value to Yemen were solidified when the port city of Mocha became a significant hub for coffee trade during the 17th century. The city's name itself has become synonymous with coffee. Coffee from the port of Mocha was considered to be the best in the world during the 17th and 18th centuries, and it was from here that coffee began its global journey, first to the Ottoman Empire, then to Europe, and eventually to the rest of the world. However, despite its rich history, Yemen's coffee industry has faced numerous challenges. For centuries, Yemen enjoyed a monopoly on coffee production until other countries began cultivating their own beans, creating competition. Political instability, civil conflict, and economic decline in recent decades have also significantly impacted the coffee industry. Regardless of the difficulties, Yemeni coffee remains a symbol of the country's rich cultural heritage. Today, initiatives are being taken to revitalize Yemen's coffee industry by introducing modern farming techniques while maintaining traditional practices to protect the distinctive qualities of Yemeni coffee beans. There is a renewed interest from global consumers and coffee enthusiasts in Yemen's coffee, which bodes well for the future of the industry. As the history of coffee in Yemen continues to unfold, it holds a promising potential to recapture its former glory and contribute significantly to Yemen's economic and social progress. Ancient brewing techniques Ancient brewing techniques in Yemen have been around since at least the 15th century. Coffee was first brought to Yemen by traders travelling from Ethiopia, and these traders helped introduce the Yemeni people to the drink. Ancient Yemenis had a variety of brewing techniques that they used to prepare the beans. The most traditional method was to roast the beans over a hot stone, an ancient practice known as "tas-sula". The roasted beans were then put into a wide-bottomed coffee pot, with water and spices added. The coffee would be boiled in this pot until it was thick and fragrant. The mixture was then filtered, though a piece of cloth may have been used instead of a filter. In modern times, Yemenis have continued to use traditional brewing methods though many have switched to the newer technologies like espresso machines and French presses. Some cafes in Yemen even employ the ancient "tas-sula" method of roasting the beans to make their coffee more fragrant, intense and flavorful. Traditional brewing techniques, including those used in Yemen, typically produce a more intense and flavorful cup of coffee, with a nutty, earthy or acidic flavor. Importance of Mokha Coffee Mokha Coffee is a type of coffee grown in the ancient port city of Mokha in Yemen and is widely regarded as one of the oldest and most esteemed varieties of coffee. Historically, Yemenicoffee was highly sought after for its delicate flavor; Mokha Coffee is no exception. It has a full-bodied flavor with a balanced acidity and notes of honey, flowers, and citrus. In the 15th century, Yemeni traders recognized the potential of coffee, taking it around the world while bringing back coffee beans from Ethiopia. Many of these beans were grown in the Mokha region and handled in the ancient port of Mokha. The story of Mokha Coffee has been very important in the history of coffee worldwide. As a result of its long and illustrious past, this coffee has come to be seen as a symbol of Yemeni heritage. It is known for its quality, flavor, and importance in the history of coffee. Mokha Coffee, as a result of its long and distinguished history, has inspired coffee roasters, growers, and enthusiasts alike. As its popularity has grown, there have been numerous efforts to promote and support the cultivation and sale of this coffee. This has included not only providing quality beans for roasting, but also providing information on the history of this coffee, educating growers in modern cultivation techniques, and doing research to produce higher quality coffee that is closer to the original beans that were found History of Mokha Coffee Mokha coffee is a type of gourmet specialty coffee native to the country of Yemen. The unique flavor of Mokha coffee has been sought after for centuries, and its production and trading can be traced back to the 15th century. The port city of Mokha, located along Yemen's Red Sea coastline, was the major hub for the production and trade of Yemeni coffee for nearly 500 years and became a major center of commerce in the Middle East. The ancient port city of Mokha was renowned for having some of the finest coffee beans in the world. Coffee produced in this region is distinctive due to its soil composition, the unique climate and the limited rainfall in the area. Yemeni farmers carefully cultivated their coffee beans by using natural compost and rarely irrigating them with water. As a result, their coffee beans yielded a high level of acidity and a robust flavor, giving Mokha coffee its signature taste. In addition to its unique flavor, Mokha coffee also has an interesting history due to its connection to the early days of trade. In the 1500s, traders from all over the world came to Mokha to purchase the prized coffee beans. These traders would then transport the beans over land and sea to ports in the Mediterranean, where they would be sold to coffee lovers throughout Europe and North America. In recent times, Mokha coffee has made a comeback thanks to enterprising farmers in Yemen working to revive the ancient coffee cultivation and processing traditions. The regeneration of the Mokha coffee industry is a testament to the resilience and determination of these farmers, who have faced significant obstacles, including a harsh climate, water scarcity, and ongoing political instability. In the face of these adversities, farmers have strived to maintain the quality and distinctiveness of Mokha coffee. Each step in the process, from planting and harvesting to processing and roasting, is done meticulously by hand, preserving the traditional methods that have been passed down through generations. The result is a coffee with a rich, wine-like quality, possessing fruity and floral notes with a hint of cocoa that make it one of the world's most sought-after coffee varieties. Moreover, the rise of specialty coffee shops and the increasing demand for high-quality, single-origin coffees in the West have contributed to the resurgence of Mokha coffee. This has offered a valuable opportunity for Yemeni farmers to access new markets and achieve higher prices for their beans. Despite the difficulties facing Yemen, the story of Mokha coffee is one of hope and resilience. The commitment to preserving the tradition of Mokha coffee and the revitalization of its production is an important part of Yemen's cultural heritage and has the potential to contribute significantly to its economy. The enduring legacy of Mokha coffee is a testament to Yemen's deep-rooted connection to the history and evolution of coffee production and consumption globally. Impact on its production Coffee production in Yemen has had a long and tumultuous history, with the cultivation of the coffee crop largely dependent on the social and political struggles during the various phases of its history. During the Ottoman period (1540-1740) coffee production expanded rapidly due to the Ottoman's taxation policies and organization of government. As a result, Yemen became a major coffee producer, supplying demand to the coffee drinking world and driving the extensive specialty coffee industry. However, the expansion of coffee production and consumption in Yemen hit a significant decline in the late 19th century, when the Ottomans were pushed out of Yemen by the British. This period of colonial rule significantly affected Yemeni coffee, leaving much of the population in a state of economic, social and political decline. This was exacerbated by the subsequent civil war, unrest and political instability that has plagued the country since the late 1960s. The impact of these events on Yemeni coffee was particularly profound. As mentioned earlier, much of the production was diminished during this time and the coffee industry received little to no government attention or funding. Coffee production in the country remained stagnant in the following decades, holding back the industry from achieving its full potential. Nonetheless, recent years have seen some growth in the specialty coffee industry and the emergence of a vibrant independent coffee retail community. It is the hope of many within the industry that this will lead to a prosperous future for coffee production in Yemen. In addition, increased access to high quality farming equipment and resources, as well as efforts from the international community to bolster Yemen's coffee industry have started to slowly change the narrative. Today, the major factors impacting coffee production in Yemen include not only political instability and conflict, but also economic issues, infrastructure problems, and climate change. Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for most Yemenis, but lack of access to modern farming techniques and equipment, coupled with outdated irrigation methods, has hindered productivity. In the face of climate change, Yemen's coffee farmers are also grappling with unpredictable weather patterns and increasing droughts. This, along with soil degradation and deforestation, threatens the country's biodiversity, further compounding the struggles of coffee farmers. Despite these challenges, many farmers and producers in Yemen remain committed to coffee cultivation. They see coffee as not just a valuable export, but also as a deeply ingrained part of their culture and identity. In recent years, there has been a renewed interest in Yemeni coffee, both locally and globally. International organizations, coffee lovers, and entrepreneurs are showing interest in Yemen's unique coffee varieties and are investing in the sector to help revitalize the industry. Furthermore, sustainability initiatives have also been introduced, including training for farmers in more sustainable farming methods, investing in infrastructure, and establishing cooperatives to help farmers access the global market. While the path to a prosperous and sustainable coffee industry in Yemen is filled with obstacles, the enduring spirit of its people and their passion for coffee gives hope for a better future. With continued effort and support, Yemeni coffee has the potential to reclaim its historic reputation on the global stage. Yemeni Coffee Culture The Yemeni coffee culture is steeped in ancient traditions passed down through generations. Yemeni coffee is renowned around the globe for its distinctive taste, a result of its production process which has been in use since the 15th century. Yemen is historically known as the first exporter of coffee in the world, with coffee shipments from its port cities of Mokha and Mocha traveling the ancient spice trade routes, from the Indian Ocean across the Red Sea, and ultimately throughout the Middle East. Yemeni coffee has a unique flavor that comes from the beans being dried in the sun before roasting, which gives them a smoky flavor that's characteristic of Yemeni coffee. During the roasting, the beans are constantly stirred manually, giving a slow and gentle burn that gives them a richer flavor. The final step is grinding, which is done with a mortar and pestle. In Yemen, coffee has always been more than just a beverage; it's a part of the culture. Sitting together and sipping coffee has always been one of the most common ways for socializing and conducting business. Often referred to as "qahwa," Yemeni coffee is ceremoniously brewed and served in small porcelain cups, ensuring each single person in the room a perfect taste each time. In fact, coffee was, and continues to be so highly valued in Yemen that it is often referred to as "the divine drink." Yemeni coffee has become more accessible in recent years due to the work of local coffee farmers and cooperatives who strive to maintain its unique quality while also ensuring fair-trade practices. The current coffee renaissance in Yemen is being driven by the younger generation who are revitalizing the industry while preserving the traditional techniques handed down to them by their ancestors. Importantly, coffee in Yemen is not just a morning or afternoon drink but an all-day affair, enjoyed at any time of the day. Traditional Yemeni coffee is strong and unsweetened, often served in small cups accompanied by a side of dates or sweets. Sometimes, spices like cardamom and saffron are added to the brew for an extra kick of flavor. The coffee houses, or "qahwa," of Yemen have also played an important role in shaping the social and cultural landscape of the country. Historically, these spaces were reserved for men and were a place of social gathering, storytelling, and musical performances. Today, they remain a focal point of community interaction, where people gather to discuss everything from politics to literature, or simply to catch up on the day's events. Overall, Yemeni coffee culture is a testament to the country's rich history and the importance of preserving cultural traditions. Despite the many challenges Yemen faces today, its coffee culture continues to thrive, reminding us of the enduring power of community and the shared love of this divine drink. Unique customs around drinking coffee Sipping coffee in Yemen is a time-honored custom steeped in history and tradition. Legend says that the first coffee bean was discovered by an Ethiopian goatherd, who noticed how energetic his animals were after eating the red berries off a shrub. Centuries later, coffee eventually made its way to Yemen, where it quickly became a part of the local culture. To this day, Yemeni coffee is one of the most revered brews in the world. Yemeni people enjoy sitting down in social gatherings to sip coffee and chat. This is a practice that has been passed down through generations and is even sometimes used to settle disputes between families. Coffee cups are often decorated with beautiful patterns, making them an important symbol of hospitality. In Yemen, bitter cardamom is a popular addition to coffee, making a deliciously strong drink that is served in tiny cups. Yemeni coffee is also deeply connected to religious traditions. Roasting and grinding the beans are considered acts of worship in Yemen, and the aroma of freshly brewed coffee is said to bring people closer to God. In recent years, Yemeni coffee has received a boost in popularity, becoming more widely available to those who can't travel to Yemen. Many specialty coffee shops serve Yemeni coffee and the culture of gathering to enjoy it has spread far and wide. Differences between Yemeni and Western culture Yemen is the birthplace of coffee, where it has been deliciously prepared for thousands of years. While coffee has become a global phenomenon, sipping the dark brew in Yemen has a unique flavor as it has been steeped in centuries of culture and tradition. Here are some of the ways that Yemeni culture and Western culture differ when it comes to the way coffee is made, served, and appreciated. In Yemen, coffee is traditionally prepared by grinding coffee beans using a mortar and pestle and brewing it in a dallah, a long-necked pot with a spout. The dallah is then placed over an open flame to bring the water to a boil. This lengthy process emphasizes the importance of taking time to appreciate every step of making the coffee and enjoying the final product. When served, Yemeni coffee is accompanied by dates and an assortment of snacks such as nuts, dried fruits, and qat. In the West, coffee is typically paired with sugar and/or milk, and rarely accompanied with snacks. Honey is more commonly used than sugar to sweeten coffee in Yemen. Finally, in Yemen, coffee is an important social lubricant and source of hospitality, meaning it is not only consumed but shared with family members and guests. Coffee is an integral part of Yemeni culture and is often made for special occasions and served with jubilant conversation. Meanwhile, in the West, it has become acceptable to have coffee on-the-go, often in disposable cups for convenience. However, there are Western coffee shops and cafes that do seek to provide a more communal, leisurely atmosphere reminiscent of the Yemeni approach. Another difference lies in the presentation and consumption. In Yemen, coffee is often served in smaller, ornate cups or glasses, known as finjan, which are usually filled only halfway. This serves a dual purpose: it keeps the coffee warm, and it encourages drinkers to take small sips, savoring each mouthful. In the West, coffee is usually served in larger mugs and consumed in larger quantities at a time. Moreover, the tradition of qishr, a spiced coffee made from the husks of the coffee bean, is common in Yemen, whereas in Western culture, this part of the bean is typically discarded. Qishr is spiced with ingredients like ginger, cardamom, and sometimes cinnamon, giving it a unique, distinctive flavor. Finally, it's worth noting that in Yemeni culture, there is an inherent reverence for coffee and its origins. Coffee is seen as a special gift of nature, with a deep connection to the land and the people who cultivate it. This respect for coffee is often translated into the slow, deliberate process of preparing, serving, and enjoying it. In contrast, in many Western societies, the mass production and commercialization of coffee can sometimes obscure the connection between the drink and its origins. However, a growing appreciation for artisanal, responsibly sourced coffee is evident, which may be seen as a move towards the more intentional consumption reminiscent of Yemeni tradition. In essence, while there are stark differences between Yemeni and Western coffee culture, each offers a unique perspective that contributes to the rich tapestry of global coffee appreciation. Preservation of Yemeni Coffee The history of coffee in Yemen stretches as far back as the 9th century, making Yemen the birthplace of coffee production and consumption. Yemeni coffee has continued to be extremely popular for centuries due to its unique flavor and aroma. The locals have very particular ideas of how the coffee should be grown, prepared, and served. They have developed unique roasting and brewing practices, such as using spices and long roasting periods to develop a particularly smooth flavor. Because Yemen is located in such a difficult and isolated region, preserving Yemen's coffee heritage has proven to be a challenge. With conflict increasing in the region, many coffee plantations and their traditional farming practices are threatened. In recent years, some have taken steps to protect the ancient and unique methods of farming and processing coffee that are still in use today. Organizations have been created to assist farmers and work together to promote the preservation of Yemeni coffee. Organizations such as the Yemenite Coffee Trade Center, the Yemen Coffee Association, and the Qahwa Sanani Club promote the Yemen's coffee industry through collaboration, education, and the advancement of coffee-industry related activities. This includes projects such as making sure farmers use sustainable farming practices, practicing the traditional cultivation techniques, and ensuring that traditional Yemeni coffee is exported and fully appreciated. Some organizations even facilitate the training of Yemeni coffee farmers, helping them to better understand the benefits of sustainable and organic farming practices, and passing on the ancient coffee knowledge that has been passed down for centuries from generation to generation. Moreover, in an effort to help preserve Yemen's coffee culture, these organizations also work towards enhancing Yemeni coffee's visibility in the global coffee market. They collaborate with coffee shops and roasters worldwide to offer their unique beans, sharing not just the product, but the stories and traditional methods behind it as well. As a result, connoisseurs and casual coffee lovers alike are given the chance to taste the rich, distinct flavors of Yemeni coffee, and the tale of its journey from the remote mountains of Yemen to their cup. The work of these organizations is vital, not only for preserving the traditional Yemeni coffee culture, but also for the economic growth and development of the Yemeni coffee industry. Coffee, being Yemen's largest agricultural export, plays a significant role in the livelihoods of many Yemeni farmers. Ultimately, preserving Yemeni coffee is about more than just the beverage itself—it's about upholding a rich cultural heritage, sustaining traditional farming practices, and securing economic stability for local communities. It's a testament to the resilience and dedication of the Yemeni people to uphold their traditions despite the challenges they face, and a beacon of hope for the future of Yemen's coffee industry. Through continued local and international efforts to preserve Yemeni coffee, there's hope that the world can continue to savor and appreciate the unique characteristics of Yemeni coffee for centuries to come. It's not just about preserving a product, but a way of life, a history, and a cultural treasure that is inherently Yemeni. Impact of the civil war on production The civil war had a devastating impact on the coffee production industry in Yemen. Prior to the conflict, the country was known for its world-renowned coffee. The destruction of infrastructure, the displacement of people, and the ongoing economic crisis meant that production was severely diminished. This meant that any specialty production—the major source of income for Yemeni producers—was virtually impossible. Yemeni exporters had to depend on foreign markets for income, and this led to a steep decline in quality. Moreover, with limited access to resources necessary to maintain quality control at a large scale, Yemeni coffee quickly became a "commodity" product, trading at much lower prices than pre-conflict levels. The effect of the civil war on coffee production in Yemen was disastrous. It is estimated that some 80 percent of production declined, leading to a steep drop in exports and leaving many farmers unable to make ends meet. Furthermore, the war created a humanitarian crisis, with lives and livelihoods damaged by the conflict. Challenges in preserving Yemeni coffee The main challenge in preserving Yemeni coffee is the nation's political and socio-economic instability. Yemen has been embroiled in a civil war since 2015, which has caused significant disruption to the traditional coffee supply chain. Many of the country's smallholder coffee producers have been forced to abandon their farms or flee to safety due to the conflict. This has made traditional coffee production methods difficult to sustain, leading to a decline in the quality of Yemeni coffee. In addition, the country's coffee-growing regions have experienced water shortages due to changing climate conditions, as well as disruption to local markets that have halted the traditional farming and trading patterns of Yemeni coffee. This has resulted in the shortage of high-quality beans and a reduced availability of coffee in the international market. In light of these challenges, efforts to preserve Yemeni coffee have been limited. However, in recent years, some NGOs and local coffee businesses have worked to promote coffee production in the country and to develop innovative solutions for preserving Yemen's centuries-old coffee culture. These include introducing more sustainable practices, such as terracing and water conservation, to protect the environment and help farmers increase coffee yields. Additionally, some groups are working to expand access to local markets and improve the quality of Yemeni coffee, while promoting the unique Arabica coffee heritage of the region. Conclusion The story of coffee in Yemen is a long and varied one that spans centuries of industry, wars, and invasions. Although coffee production in Yemen has long been an important and important source of income for Yemen's population, the recent war and successive invasions have had a profound and tangible impact on the country's coffee industry. The growth of coffee cultivation in both wild and cultivation areas has been drastically reduced. In addition, infrastructure damage and decreased access to markets and educational opportunities have made it difficult for Yemeni coffee producers to get their product to the global market. Fortunately, over time, efforts have been made to rebuild the coffee industry in Yemen, in the form of investments from the private sector and international donors, as well as farmer cooperatives. This has, in turn, allowed Yemeni coffee production to continue to exist, providing jobs and income for many families to survive and succeed and ultimately helping to rebuild a country so deeply impacted by immense hardship. Summary of the article This article is about the history of coffee in Yemen. It begins with a brief discussion about how coffee was first discovered and how it spread from there. The article then goes into detail about Yemen, its culture, and its history with coffee. It talks about the different types of coffee grown in Yemen, such as mocha and kishr. It then moves into the impact coffee had on Yemeni culture, such as the introduction of coffee houses and the strong bond that formed between the Yemeni farmers and the traders. Finally, the article discusses how coffee is still an important part of Yemeni culture and the country's economy today. It concludes by looking at how coffee's popularity in the West has brought attention and opportunity to Yemeni farmers. Final thoughts on the exploration into the history of Yemeni coffee Yemeni coffee is deeply rooted in its history and in its culture. Its unique flavor is due to the production methods and the distinct terroir of the region. The development of this style of coffee has been impactful for coffee drinkers all over the world. Yemeni coffee has been appreciated for centuries and has held a special place in the cuisine of Yemen for generations. Yemeni coffee can still be found throughout the country and is enjoyed by many as part of a traditional cup of Yemeni coffee. From its unique origins to the stories of those who have worked hard to produce their coffee, Yemeni coffee is a delicious part of our world's history and culture. It is an enjoyable and delicious journey through time, and continues to captivate coffee drinkers all around the world.